All Hallow's Eve

At Halloween, popular histories and certain religious sects (e.g. Jehovah's Witnesses and the Armstrong Churches of God) repeat the well-entrenched theory that this holiday's origins are found in paganism. This theory originated among certain well-meaning historians who sought to tie the practices of the Catholic Church to paganism. Unfortunately, the scholarship and research associated with the resulting "histories" ignored a great deal of the actual history of this holiday's origins (which are well-documented). In other words, the origins of All Hallows' Eve or "Halloween" are found in the history of the Christian faith.

Indeed, Catholic historians tell the story of the holiday this way:

In the early days of the Church, Christians celebrated each martyr’s feast on the anniversary of his death. As the number of martyrs increased over time, though, and because the liturgical calendar can only accommodate a limited number of Christian luminaries in its 365-day cycle, the Church began honoring all martyrs on a single day.

By the later A.D.300s and the early 400s, the Church began to celebrate a feast for all those who had given their life in witness to Christ and his Church. In 609 or 610, Pope Boniface IV consecrated the Pantheon in Rome to the Blessed Virgin Mary and all martyrs, choosing May 13 to honor the martyrs. Pope Gregory III (731-741) extended the feast to include all saints, moving its celebration to November 1, which explains why All Hallows’ Eve is celebrated on October 31, the day before.

See Is Halloween Demonic? The Truth About All Hallows' Eve

WHO Are the Saints? AND Are They Worthy of Honor and Celebration?

As we approach "All Saints Day, All Hallows, All Hallows Eve" which many Christians around the world will celebrate, it behooves those of us who profess to be Christians to understand exactly what is being celebrated and why! Is the celebration of saints an invention of the Roman Catholic Church? Did that group designate certain people to be saints? Can Protestant Christians be saints? What is a SAINT? Who are the saints? Are they worthy of honor and celebration? We're going to take a look at what religious scholars and the Christian Canon has to say in our attempt to definitively answer those questions.

First, anyone who is familiar with the King James Version of the Bible, the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church or the Eastern Orthodox Church will recognize the importance of the English word "saint." In the original Hebrew Bible, the word "qados" was originally translated into English as "saint." The word literally denotes something/someone that/who is sacred, holy, set apart, or a saint. In fact, different formulations of this word (depending on the part of speech it is being used to represent) are used to describe the Sabbath and Festivals of Torah. Likewise, the Greek word "hagios" was originally translated into English as "saint." It also denotes something/someone that/who is sacred, holy, worthy of veneration, or a saint. Indeed, we refer to a biography of a saint as being a "hagiography." In fact, the Holy Spirit itself appears as "hagios" and "pneuma" in the original Greek! Moreover, in both Hebrew and Greek, the words are more broadly used to designate that which is holy, has been sanctified, or set apart by God. As we will shortly demonstrate, the definitions here related will be crucial to correctly answering the questions posed in the opening paragraph of this post!

To be thorough, we should note that there is another word which is often translated into English as "saint" in the Old Testament. However, it should be noted that "hasid" carries a different connotation than "qados," as it refers to those who are faithful to God's covenant with Israel - who obey the commandments of Torah. For instance, in the fiftieth Psalm, we read: "Gather my saints <hasid> together unto me; those that have made a covenant with me by sacrifice." (Psalm 50:5, KJV) Likewise, in another Psalm, we read: "He also exalteth the horn of his people, the praise of all his saints <hasid>; even of the children of Israel, a people near unto him. Praise ye the Lord." (Psalm 148:14, KJV) Now, while "qados" is also used to refer to the people of Israel at times, it is more often used in those writings in a prophetic sense - as in those who will or already have received salvation. (See Psalm 89:1-7, Daniel 7:18-27, Zechariah 14:5)

Now, with this background in hand, we are ready to tackle the questions about the identity of the New Covenant saints of God. In the book of Acts, we are informed that Ananias reminded the Lord about how much evil Paul "hath done to thy saints at Jerusalem" when he was commanded to receive him. (Acts 9:13) Later, in that same chapter, we read that "as Peter passed throughout all quarters, he came down also to the saints which dwelt at Lydda." (Acts 9:32) Moreover, when Peter raised the little girl from the dead, we read that he "called the saints and widows, presented her alive." (Acts 9:41) Later, when Paul recounted his history of persecuting Christians to King Agrippa, he said: "many of the saints did I shut up in prison, having received authority from the chief priests; and when they were put to death, I gave my voice against them." (Acts 26:10)

When Paul penned his letter to the Christians at Rome, he wrote: "To all that be in Rome, beloved of God, called to be saints: Grace to you and peace from God our Father, and the Lord Jesus Christ." (Romans 1:7) Later, in the same epistle, Paul explained to them that those who walk after the Spirit are different (or set apart) from those who walk after the flesh. (Romans 8:1-9) He went on to write: "Likewise the Spirit also helpeth our infirmities: for we know not what we should pray for as we ought: but the Spirit itself maketh intercession for us with groanings which cannot be uttered. And he that searcheth the hearts knoweth what is the mind of the Spirit, because he maketh intercession for the saints according to the will of God." (Romans 8:26-27) Then, toward the end of the epistle, Paul wrote: "But now I go unto Jerusalem to minister unto the saints. For it hath pleased them of Macedonia and Achaia to make a certain contribution for the poor saints which are at Jerusalem." (Romans 15:26-27) Paul then concluded his letter with these admonitions: "I commend unto you Phebe our sister, which is a servant of the church which is at Cenchrea: That ye receive her in the Lord, as becometh saints, and that ye assist her in whatsoever business she hath need of you: for she hath been a succourer of many, and of myself also." (Romans 16:1-2) and "Salute Philologus, and Julia, Nereus, and his sister, and Olympas, and all the saints which are with them." (Romans 16:15)

Are we beginning to discern a pattern in these writings? In both the book of Acts and Romans, we see that the term "saints" simply refers to everyone who was a Christian! Indeed, we will see that this is how that term is used throughout the writings we call the New Testament.

Paul addressed his letter to the Christians of Corinth by writing: "Unto the church of God which is at Corinth, to them that are sanctified in Christ Jesus, called to be saints, with all that in every place call upon the name of Jesus Christ our Lord, both their's and our's..." (I Corinthians 1:2) Later, after reprimanding the Church for tolerating moral depravity in their midst, he wrote: "Dare any of you, having a matter against another, go to law before the unjust, and not before the saints? Do ye not know that the saints shall judge the world? and if the world shall be judged by you, are ye unworthy to judge the smallest matters?" (I Corinthians 6:1-2) Paul went on to say: "For God is not the author of confusion, but of peace, as in all churches of the saints." (I Corinthians 14:33) Likewise, in his second letter to the Church there, he wrote: "Paul, an apostle of Jesus Christ by the will of God, and Timothy our brother, unto the church of God which is at Corinth, with all the saints which are in all Achaia..." (II Corinthians 1:1) Once again, he closed a letter with what was then familiar language: "Finally, brethren, farewell. Be perfect, be of good comfort, be of one mind, live in peace; and the God of love and peace shall be with you. Greet one another with an holy kiss. All the saints salute you. The grace of the Lord Jesus Christ, and the love of God, and the communion of the Holy Ghost, be with you all. Amen." (II Corinthians 13:11-14) Notice that Paul's use of the term "saints" is consistent with what we have already observed in the books of Acts and Romans.

Nevertheless, just to nail this down from a Scriptural perspective, we will continue with some of Paul's other epistles. In yet another letter, he wrote: "Paul, an apostle of Jesus Christ by the will of God, to the saints which are at Ephesus, and to the faithful in Christ Jesus: Grace be to you, and peace, from God our Father, and from the Lord Jesus Christ." (Ephesians 1:1-2) Continuing in the same chapter, we read: "Wherefore I also, after I heard of your faith in the Lord Jesus, and love unto all the saints, Cease not to give thanks for you, making mention of you in my prayers; That the God of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Father of glory, may give unto you the spirit of wisdom and revelation in the knowledge of him: The eyes of your understanding being enlightened; that ye may know what is the hope of his calling, and what the riches of the glory of his inheritance in the saints, And what is the exceeding greatness of his power to us-ward who believe, according to the working of his mighty power..." (Ephesians 1:15-19) Later, in the same epistle, Paul spoke of the traditional well-delineated differences between Jews and Gentiles, and how Jesus had made them both into God's people. (Ephesians 2:11-18) Then, Paul wrote: "Now therefore ye are no more strangers and foreigners, but fellow citizens with the saints, and of the household of God; And are built upon the foundation of the apostles and prophets, Jesus Christ himself being the chief corner stone; In whom all the building fitly framed together groweth unto an holy temple in the Lord: In whom ye also are builded together for an habitation of God through the Spirit." (Ephesians 2:19-22) Clearly, the Apostle Paul believed that ALL Christians were saints!

Likewise, his letters to the Colossians, Philippians, and Thessalonians convey the same sense. Paul wrote: "Paul and Timotheus, the servants of Jesus Christ, to all the saints in Christ Jesus which are at Philippi, with the bishops and deacons: Grace be unto you, and peace, from God our Father, and from the Lord Jesus Christ." (Philippians 1:1-2) He also wrote: "To the saints and faithful brethren in Christ which are at Colosse: Grace be unto you, and peace, from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ. We give thanks to God and the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, praying always for you, Since we heard of your faith in Christ Jesus, and of the love which ye have to all the saints..." (Colossians 1:2-4) In his first epistle to the Church at Thessalonica, Paul wrote: "And the Lord make you to increase and abound in love one toward another, and toward all men, even as we do toward you: To the end he may stablish your hearts unblameable in holiness before God, even our Father, at the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ with all his saints." (I Thessalonians 3:12-13) In similar fashion, he wrote a second time: "When he shall come to be glorified in his saints, and to be admired in all them that believe (because our testimony among you was believed) in that day. Wherefore also we pray always for you, that our God would count you worthy of this calling, and fulfil all the good pleasure of his goodness, and the work of faith with power: That the name of our Lord Jesus Christ may be glorified in you, and ye in him, according to the grace of our God and the Lord Jesus Christ." (II Thessalonians 1:10-12) So, we have seen that Paul was very consistent in this respect throughout his writings.

Now, we come at last to the final book of the New Testament Canon: Revelation. John wrote: "And I wept much, because no man was found worthy to open and to read the book, neither to look thereon. And one of the elders saith unto me, Weep not: behold, the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the Root of David, hath prevailed to open the book, and to loose the seven seals thereof. And I beheld, and, lo, in the midst of the throne and of the four beasts, and in the midst of the elders, stood a Lamb as it had been slain, having seven horns and seven eyes, which are the seven Spirits of God sent forth into all the earth. And he came and took the book out of the right hand of him that sat upon the throne. And when he had taken the book, the four beasts and four and twenty elders fell down before the Lamb, having every one of them harps, and golden vials full of odours, which are the prayers of saints." (Revelation 5:4-8) Notice, that the context makes very clear that the prayers of Christians came to God's throne in heaven. Not clear to you? Continuing, we read: "And another angel came and stood at the altar, having a golden censer; and there was given unto him much incense, that he should offer it with the prayers of all saints upon the golden altar which was before the throne. And the smoke of the incense, which came with the prayers of the saints, ascended up before God out of the angel's hand." (Revelation 8:3-4)

In addition to these passages about the prayers of the saints, there are a number of other passages in the book of Revelation which clearly identify the saints as Christians. In the thirteenth chapter of the book, we find that "the beast" was given the power to make war on the saints. (Revelation 13:7) In the very next chapter, we read: "Here is the patience of the saints: here are they that keep the commandments of God, and the faith of Jesus." (Revelation 14:12) Likewise, in the seventeenth chapter, we see "the great whore" "drunken with the blood of the saints, and with the blood of the martyrs of Jesus." (Revelation 17:6) In the following chapter, the story is about the fall of "Babylon" (Rome). Next, we read that "in her was found the blood of prophets, and of saints, and of all that were slain upon the earth." (Revelation 18:24) Then, in the following chapter, we read: "And I heard as it were the voice of a great multitude, and as the voice of many waters, and as the voice of mighty thunderings, saying, Alleluia: for the Lord God omnipotent reigneth. Let us be glad and rejoice, and give honour to him: for the marriage of the Lamb is come, and his wife hath made herself ready. And to her was granted that she should be arrayed in fine linen, clean and white: for the fine linen is the righteousness of saints." (Revelation 19:6-8) Notice that the bride of the Lamb (the Church - the called out ones) are given clean white linen to wear, and we are explicitly told that these garments represent "the righteousness of saints).

In all of the passages which we have reviewed here, we have seen that the saints are synonymous with those who are known as Christians. In short, saints are those who have been called together by God through their faith in Jesus of Nazareth, the Christ. Saints are those whose sins have been forgiven, and who have received God's Holy Spirit. (Romans 8:9) Saints stand before God whole and clean because of the righteous life and willing sacrifice of Jesus Christ. They have been set apart by God, Christ, and the Holy Spirit. (Matthew 28:19) Now, although the saints live moral lives of giving and service, they all recognize that they are accounted righteous before God because of what Jesus Christ did for them - NOT because of any inherent holiness or righteousness of their own! THESE ARE THE SAINTS OF GOD!

Having said all of that, we all recognize that certain individual saints have lived exemplary lives - some of them having faced persecution, torture, and death for their faith! In the New Testament, we see numerous instances of where individual saints faced persecution, imprisonment, stoning, and death. We have the stories of Peter, Paul, Stephen, and James. Likewise, from the earliest days of the Christian community, we know that the sacrifices of these people were held up as examples for the saints to strive to emulate. Indeed, many of these individuals were regarded by their brethren as heroes of the faith!

In Clement of Rome's letter to the saints at Corinth, we read: "But not to dwell upon ancient examples, let us come to the most recent spiritual heroes. Let us take the noble examples furnished in our own generation. Through envy and jealousy, the greatest and most righteous pillars [of the Church] have been persecuted and put to death. Let us set before our eyes the illustrious apostles. Peter, through unrighteous envy, endured not one or two, but numerous labours, and when he had finally suffered martyrdom, departed to the place of glory due to him. Owing to envy, Paul also obtained the reward of patient endurance, after being seven times thrown into captivity, compelled to flee, and stoned. After preaching both in the east and west, he gained the illustrious reputation due to his faith, having taught righteousness to the whole world, and come to the extreme limit of the west, and suffered martyrdom under the prefects. Thus was he removed from the world, and went into the holy place, having proved himself a striking example of patience." (Clement of Rome to the Corinthians) Notice how Clement uses Peter's and Paul's martyrdom to inspire greater effort among the saints at Corinth.

Likewise, in his letter to the saints at Rome, Ignatius wrote: "I write to all the Churches, and impress on them all, that I shall willingly die for God, unless ye hinder me. I beseech of you not to show an unseasonable goodwill towards me. Suffer me to become food for the wild beasts, through whose instrumentality it will be granted me to attain to God. I am the wheat of God, and am ground by the teeth of the wild beasts, that I may be found the pure bread of God. Rather entice the wild beasts, that they may become my tomb, and may leave nothing of my body; so that when I have fallen asleep [in death], I may not be found troublesome to any one. Then shall I be a true disciple of Jesus Christ, when the world shall not see so much as my body. Entreat the Lord for me, that by these instruments I may be found a sacrifice to God. I do not, as Peter and Paul, issue commandments unto you. They were apostles of Jesus Christ, but I am the very least [of believers]: they were free, as the servants of God; while I am, even until now, a servant. But when I suffer, I shall be the freedman of Jesus Christ, and shall rise again emancipated in Him. And now, being in bonds for Him, I learn not to desire anything worldly or vain. From Syria even unto Rome I fight with beasts, both by land and sea, both by night and day, being bound to ten leopards, I mean a band of soldiers, who, even when they receive benefits, show themselves all the worse. But I am the more instructed by their injuries [to act as a disciple of Christ]; "yet am I not thereby justified." May I enjoy the wild beasts that are prepared for me; and I pray that they may be found eager to rush upon me, which also I will entice to devour me speedily, and not deal with me as with some, whom, out of fear, they have not touched. But if they be unwilling to assail me, I will compel them to do so. Pardon me [in this] I know what is for my benefit. Now I begin to be a disciple. And let no one, of things visible or invisible, envy me that I should attain to Jesus Christ. Let fire and the cross; let the crowds of wild beasts; let tearings, breakings, and dislocations of bones; let cutting off of members; let shatterings of the whole body; and let all the dreadful torments of the devil come upon me: only let me attain to Jesus Christ." (Ignatius of Antioch to the Romans) Clearly, Ignatius felt that martyrdom for the sake of his faith would assure his place in the Kingdom of God!

Thus, it is clear that the people of the early Church admired the work of the apostles, and those who had been willing to die for their faith. Let's be completely unambiguous on this point: There is NOTHING wrong with that kind of admiration! Remember, Paul told the saints at Rome: "For I reckon that the sufferings of this present time are not worthy to be compared with the glory which shall be revealed in us." and "Who shall separate us from the love of Christ? shall tribulation, or distress, or persecution, or famine, or nakedness, or peril, or sword? As it is written, For thy sake we are killed all the day long; we are accounted as sheep for the slaughter. Nay, in all these things we are more than conquerors through him that loved us." (Romans 8:18 and 35-37) Likewise, Peter wrote: "Yet if any man suffer as a Christian, let him not be ashamed; but let him glorify God on this behalf." (I Peter 4:16) Clearly, the saints of the early Christian Church considered it an honor to suffer for the sake of their faith! Hence, they thought that saints who lived exemplary lives of service and/or suffered for their faith were worthy of honor and celebration.

Nevertheless, all of this is somewhat different from what the Roman Catholic Church teaches about sainthood. In The Catholic Encyclopedia Online, we read: "The Catholic Church canonizes or beatifies only those whose lives have been marked by the exercise of heroic virtue, and only after this has been proved by common repute for sanctity and by conclusive arguments. The chief difference, however, lies in the meaning of the term canonization, the Church seeing in the saints nothing more than friends and servants of God whose holy lives have made them worthy of His special love. She does not pretend to make gods. The true origin of canonization and beatification must be sought in the Catholic doctrine of the worship (cultus), invocation, and intercession of the saints. As was taught by St. Augustine, Catholics, while giving to God alone adoration strictly so-called, honour the saints because of the Divine supernatural gifts which have earned them eternal life, and through which they reign with God in the heavenly fatherland as His chosen friends and faithful servants. In other words, Catholics honour God in His saints as the loving distributor of supernatural gifts." As we have seen, it is perfectly fine for the saints to single out some individual saint for praise or honor, but it is God alone who designates someone as a saint!

Similarly, in The Catechism of the Catholic Church, we read: "It is not merely by the title of example that we cherish the memory of those in heaven; we seek, rather, that by this devotion to the exercise of fraternal charity the union of the whole Church in the Spirit may be strengthened. Exactly as Christian communion among our fellow pilgrims brings us closer to Christ, so our communion with the saints joins us to Christ, from whom as from its fountain and head issues all grace, and the life of the People of God itself”: We worship Christ as God’s Son; we love the martyrs as the Lord’s disciples and imitators, and rightly so because of their matchless devotion towards their king and master. May we also be their companions and fellow disciples! By canonizing some of the faithful, i.e., by solemnly proclaiming that they practiced heroic virtue and lived in fidelity to God’s grace, the Church recognizes the power of the Spirit of holiness within her and sustains the hope of believers by proposing the saints to them as models and intercessors. “The saints have always been the source and origin of renewal in the most difficult moments in the Church’s history.” Indeed, “holiness is the hidden source and infallible measure of her apostolic activity and missionary zeal.” The patriarchs, prophets, and certain other Old Testament figures have been and always will be honored as saints in all the Church’s liturgical traditions." Once again, we see in this a mixture of spiritual truth and error. Saints are Christians, and it is perfectly acceptable to hold some of them up as examples of spiritual greatness. Even so, our prayers and worship should be addressed to Almighty God - period!

In the same source, we also read: "It is in the Church, in communion with all the baptized, that the Christian fulfills his vocation. From the Church he receives the Word of God containing the teachings of “the law of Christ.” From the Church he receives the grace of the sacraments that sustains him on the “way.” From the Church he learns the example of holiness and recognizes its model and source in the all-holy Virgin Mary; he discerns it in the authentic witness of those who live it; he discovers it in the spiritual tradition and long history of the saints who have gone before him and whom the liturgy celebrates in the rhythms of the sanctoral cycle." Now there is nothing wrong with this statement if it is understood within the context of the scriptural passages we have already studied. Moreover, the "Catholic" (Universal) "ekklesia" (Church) must be understood to include ALL of the saints, NOT just those who belong to the Roman or Eastern Orthodox Churches. We must never forget that the Church is the assembly of those called together by Almighty God - those who have placed their faith in Jesus of Nazareth as their Savior!

So, let's celebrate the saints and honor the God who sanctified them. Paul said that Jesus Christ called him to a ministry of sanctification. Notice his own account of what Christ said to him: "I said, ‘Who are you, Lord?’ And the Lord said, ‘I am Jesus whom you are persecuting. But rise and stand upon your feet, for I have appeared to you for this purpose, to appoint you as a servant and witness to the things in which you have seen me and to those in which I will appear to you, delivering you from your people and from the Gentiles—to whom I am sending you to open their eyes, so that they may turn from darkness to light and from the power of Satan to God, that they may receive forgiveness of sins and a place among those who are sanctified by faith in me.'" (Acts 26:15-18, ESV) Like Paul, I believe that Jesus Christ makes us holy ones or saints. What about you?

Clement of Rome to the Christians at Corinth

Let him who has love in Christ keep the commandments of Christ. Who can describe the [blessed] bond of the love of God? What man is able to tell the excellence of its beauty, as it ought to be told? The height to which love exalts is unspeakable. Love unites us to God. Love covers a multitude of sins. Love bears all things, is long-suffering in all things. There is nothing base, nothing arrogant in love. Love admits of no schisms: love gives rise to no seditions: love does all things in harmony. By love have all the elect of God been made perfect; without love nothing is well-pleasing to God. In love has the Lord taken us to Himself. On account of the love He bore us, Jesus Christ our Lord gave His blood for us by the will of God; His flesh for our flesh, and His soul for our souls.

You see, beloved, how great and wonderful a thing is love, and that there is no declaring its perfection. Who is fit to be found in it, except such as God has vouchsafed to render so? Let us pray, therefore, and implore of His mercy, that we may live blameless in love, free from all human partialities for one above another. All the generations from Adam even unto this day have passed away; but those who, through the grace of God, have been made perfect in love, now possess a place among the godly, and shall be made manifest at the revelation of the kingdom of Christ. For it is written, Enter into your secret chambers for a little time, until my wrath and fury pass away; and I will remember a propitious day, and will raise you up out of your graves. Isaiah 26:20 Blessed are we, beloved, if we keep the commandments of God in the harmony of love; that so through love our sins may be forgiven us. For it is written, Blessed are they whose transgressions are forgiven, and whose sins are covered. Blessed is the man whose sin the Lord will not impute to him, and in whose mouth there is no guile. This blessedness comes upon those who have been chosen by God through Jesus Christ our Lord; to whom be glory for ever and ever. Amen.

Church Fathers: Clement to the Corinthians

Before the Emperor's Vision

In the previous post, we discussed the importance of the symbol of the cross in the writings of the New Testament. In this post, we will look at some of the historical evidence that the cross continued to be an important symbol in the Second Century. In doing so, we will destroy the notion that the cross didn't become a Christian Symbol until Constantine saw his famous vision in the year 312 CE before the Battle of the Milvian Bridge. In other words, the cross was a well-established Christian symbol that the emperor appropriated for his own purposes!

From Ignatius of Antioch's letter to the Christians at Ephesus, we read: "Let my spirit be counted as nothing for the sake of the cross, which is a stumbling-block to those that do not believe, but to us salvation and life eternal. "Where is the wise man? where the disputer?" Where is the boasting of those who are styled prudent? For our God, Jesus Christ, was, according to the appointment of God, conceived in the womb by Mary, of the seed of David, but by the Holy Ghost. He was born and baptized, that by His passion He might purify the water."   Ignatius of Antioch to the Ephesians

From Justin Martyr's First Apology, we read: "But in no instance, not even in any of those called sons of Jupiter, did they imitate the being crucified; for it was not understood by them, all the things said of it having been put symbolically. And this, as the prophet foretold, is the greatest symbol of His power and role; as is also proved by the things which fall under our observation. For consider all the things in the world, whether without this form they could be administered or have any community. For the sea is not traversed except that trophy which is called a sail abide safe in the ship; and the earth is not ploughed without it: diggers and mechanics do not their work, except with tools which have this shape. And the human form differs from that of the irrational animals in nothing else than in its being erect and having the hands extended, and having on the face extending from the forehead what is called the nose, through which there is respiration for the living creature; and this shows no other form than that of the cross. And so it was said by the prophet, The breath before our face is the Lord Christ. And the power of this form is shown by your own symbols on what are called vexilla [banners] and trophies, with which all your state possessions are made, using these as the insignia of your power and government, even though you do so unwittingly. And with this form you consecrate the images of your emperors when they die, and you name them gods by inscriptions. Since, therefore, we have urged you both by reason and by an evident form, and to the utmost of our ability, we know that now we are blameless even though you disbelieve; for our part is done and finished."  Justin Martyr's "First Apology"

From Tertullian's The Chaplet or De Carona, we read: "At every forward step and movement, at every going in and out, when we put on our clothes and shoes, when we bathe, when we sit at table, when we light the lamps, on couch, on seat, in all the ordinary actions of daily life, we trace upon the forehead the sign."  Tertullian's "De Carona"

The Cross of Christ

 

In his article, Why the Cross Is Essential to Christianity, Dr Philip Ryken (The Gospel Coalition) wrote: "When archaeologists dig through the ruins of antiquity, they have one certain way to identify a place of Christian worship. They look for a cross. When they find it painted on a wall, carved into stone, or even worked into a floor plan, they know they’ve found a church. Since the beginning, Christians have identified themselves with the cross on which Jesus died. And whether it’s carved in wood or etched on our hearts, the cross is the chief symbol and defining reality of the Christian faith." Indeed, the word "cross" appears twenty-eight times in the King James Version of the New Testament!

Paul wrote this in his first letter to the Christians at Corinth: "For Christ didn’t send me to baptize, but to preach the Good News—and not with clever speech, for fear that the cross of Christ would lose its power. The message of the cross is foolish to those who are headed for destruction! But we who are being saved know it is the very power of God." (I Corinthians 1:17-18, NLT) Likewise, to the Christians of Galatia, he wrote: "Those who are trying to force you to be circumcised want to look good to others. They don’t want to be persecuted for teaching that the cross of Christ alone can save. And even those who advocate circumcision don’t keep the whole law themselves. They only want you to be circumcised so they can boast about it and claim you as their disciples. As for me, may I never boast about anything except the cross of our Lord Jesus Christ. Because of that cross, my interest in this world has been crucified, and the world’s interest in me has also died." (Galatians 6:12-14, NLT) Finally, he wrote this to the saints at Ephesus: "For Christ himself has brought peace to us. He united Jews and Gentiles into one people when, in his own body on the cross, he broke down the wall of hostility that separated us. He did this by ending the system of law with its commandments and regulations. He made peace between Jews and Gentiles by creating in himself one new people from the two groups. Together as one body, Christ reconciled both groups to God by means of his death on the cross, and our hostility toward each other was put to death." (Ephesians 2:14-16, NLT)

Now, unfortunately, there are a few folks who like to point out that the cross existed before it became a Christian symbol. In the Watchtower ONLINE LIBRARY article, The Cross Is of Pagan Origin, we read: "In its edition of 1908, The Catholic Encyclopedia states in volume 4, page 517: 'The sign of the cross, represented in its simplest form by a crossing of two lines at right angles, greatly antedates, in both the East and the West, the introduction of Christianity. It goes back to a very remote period of human civilization.' The book The Ancient Church by clergyman W. D. Killen concurs by saying, on page 316: 'From the most remote antiquity the cross was venerated in Egypt and Syria; it was held in equal honour by the Buddhists of the East; and, what is still more extraordinary, when the Spaniards first visited America, the well-known sign was found among the objects of worship in the idol temples of Anahuac. It is also remarkable that, about the commencement of our era, the pagans were wont to make the sign of a cross upon the forehead in the celebration of some of their sacred mysteries.'" Are the Jehovah's Witnesses right? Is the symbol tainted because of its former associations?

According to the Hebrew Bible (our Old Testament), the city of Jerusalem was a pagan city before David conquered it. That didn't stop God from adopting it as the place where his Temple would be built and where his name would rest! Thus, the fact that the symbol of the cross was formerly employed by the Egyptians, Syrians, Buddhists, and Native American temples cannot be said to permanently taint/pollute the symbol. Indeed, before Christ's crucifixion, the Romans regarded the cross as a symbol of punishment and shame. The TRUTH is that Christ transformed the cross when he was crucified on one! Thereafter, the cross was a Christian symbol, and all of its former associations ceased to have any hold or power over it - or the people who used it!

When we (Christians) see the cross, we are drawn to the image of our Savior hanging on it for our sins. We are inexorably drawn to this image: "So they took Jesus away. Carrying the cross by himself, he went to the place called Place of the Skull (in Hebrew, Golgotha). There they nailed him to the cross. Two others were crucified with him, one on either side, with Jesus between them. And Pilate posted a sign on the cross that read, 'Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews.'" (John 19:16-19, NLT) Christians maintain their faith "by keeping our eyes on Jesus, the champion who initiates and perfects our faith. Because of the joy awaiting him, he endured the cross, disregarding its shame. Now he is seated in the place of honor beside God’s throne." (Hebrews 12:2, NLT) For us, the cross is the symbol of our devotion to our Savior - it reminds us of his greatest act of love for all of us.

Excerpts from Polycarp's Epistle to the Philippians

Polycarp, and the presbyters with him, to the Church of God sojourning at Philippi: Mercy to you, and peace from God Almighty, and from the Lord Jesus Christ, our Saviour, be multiplied.

I have greatly rejoiced with you in our Lord Jesus Christ, because you have followed the example of true love [as displayed by God], and have accompanied, as became you, those who were bound in chains, the fitting ornaments of saints, and which are indeed the diadems of the true elect of God and our Lord; and because the strong root of your faith, spoken of in days Philippians 1:5 long gone by, endures even until now, and brings forth fruit to our Lord Jesus Christ, who for our sins suffered even unto death, [but] whom God raised from the dead, having loosed the bands of the grave. In whom, though now you see Him not, you believe, and believing, rejoice with joy unspeakable and full of glory; 1 Peter 1:8 into which joy many desire to enter, knowing that by grace you are saved, not of works, Ephesians 2:8-9 but by the will of God through Jesus Christ.

Wherefore, girding up your loins, 1 Peter 1:13; Ephesians 6:14 serve the Lord in fear and truth, as those who have forsaken the vain, empty talk and error of the multitude, and believed in Him who raised up our Lord Jesus Christ from the dead, and gave Him glory, 1 Peter 1:21 and a throne at His right hand. To Him all things 1 Peter 3:22; Philippians 2:10 in heaven and on earth are subject. Him every spirit serves. He comes as the Judge of the living and the dead. Acts 17:31 His blood will God require of those who do not believe in Him. But He who raised Him up from the dead will raise us up also, if we do His will, and walk in His commandments, and love what He loved, keeping ourselves from all unrighteousness, covetousness, love of money, evil speaking, false witness; not rendering evil for evil, or railing for railing, 1 Peter 3:9 or blow for blow, or cursing for cursing, but being mindful of what the Lord said in His teaching: Judge not, that you be not judged; Matthew 7:1 forgive, and it shall be forgiven unto you; be merciful, that you may obtain mercy; Luke 6:36 with what measure you measure, it shall be measured to you again; Matthew 7:2; Luke 6:38 and once more, Blessed are the poor, and those that are persecuted for righteousness' sake, for theirs is the kingdom of God.

For whosoever does not confess that Jesus Christ has come in the flesh, is antichrist; 1 John 4:3 and whosoever does not confess the testimony of the cross, is of the devil; and whosoever perverts the oracles of the Lord to his own lusts, and says that there is neither a resurrection nor a judgment, he is the first-born of Satan. Wherefore, forsaking the vanity of many, and their false doctrines, let us return to the word which has been handed down to us from Jude 3 the beginning; watching unto prayer, 1 Peter 4:7 and persevering in fasting; beseeching in our supplications the all-seeing God not to lead us into temptation, Matthew 6:13; Matthew 26:41 as the Lord has said: The spirit truly is willing, but the flesh is weak. Matthew 26:41; Mark 14:38

Let us then continually persevere in our hope, and the earnest of our righteousness, which is Jesus Christ, who bore our sins in His own body on the tree, 1 Peter 2:24 who did no sin, neither was guile found in His mouth, 1 Peter 2:22 but endured all things for us, that we might live in Him. 1 John 4:9 Let us then be imitators of His patience; and if we suffer Acts 5:41; 1 Peter 4:16 for His name's sake, let us glorify Him. For He has set us this example 1 Peter 2:21 in Himself, and we have believed that such is the case.

Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians

The First One Hundred Years of the Church (Part 12)

Toward the end of the First Century of the Common Era, the generation of leaders which followed the apostles were approaching the end of their lives. One of these men was Clement of Rome, who wrote a letter to the saints at Corinth which has survived to the present time. It is a very long letter which was prompted by a great disturbance in that Church. Although the bishop begins with praise for the former reputation of that congregation, he quickly turned to the main object of his epistle. Clement wrote: "Every kind of honor and happiness was bestowed upon you, and then was fulfilled that which is written, My beloved ate and drank, and was enlarged and became fat, and kicked. Deuteronomy 32:15 Hence flowed emulation and envy, strife and sedition, persecution and disorder, war and captivity. So the worthless rose up against the honored, those of no reputation against such as were renowned, the foolish against the wise, the young against those advanced in years. For this reason righteousness and peace are now far departed from you, inasmuch as every one abandons the fear of God, and has become blind in His faith, neither walks in the ordinances of His appointment, nor acts a part becoming a Christian, but walks after his own wicked lusts, resuming the practice of an unrighteous and ungodly envy, by which death itself entered into the world. Wisdom 2:24" (See Clement to the Corinthians)

The bishop then proceeded to remind that congregation that such behavior always produced unwanted consequences. He reminded them of what evil people had done to Peter and Paul and encouraged them to repent and return to a state of peace, harmony, and righteousness. Clement went on to exhort them to be humble and resist the impulse to be prideful and rebellious. He pleaded for them to obey God and Christ over evil men and troublemakers. He went on to remind them that faithful Christians have the hope of a future resurrection to look forward to, and that their faith would ensure that outcome. Clement wrote: "Whosoever will candidly consider each particular, will recognize the greatness of the gifts which were given by him. For from him have sprung the priests and all the Levites who minister at the altar of God. From him also [was descended] our Lord Jesus Christ according to the flesh. Romans 9:5 From him [arose] kings, princes, and rulers of the race of Judah. Nor are his other tribes in small glory, inasmuch as God had promised, Your seed shall be as the stars of heaven. All these, therefore, were highly honored, and made great, not for their own sake, or for their own works, or for the righteousness which they wrought, but through the operation of His will. And we, too, being called by His will in Christ Jesus, are not justified by ourselves, nor by our own wisdom, or understanding, or godliness, or works which we have wrought in holiness of heart; but by that faith through which, from the beginning, Almighty God has justified all men; to whom be glory for ever and ever. Amen." He continued: "What shall we do, then, brethren? Shall we become slothful in well-doing, and cease from the practice of love? God forbid that any such course should be followed by us! But rather let us hasten with all energy and readiness of mind to perform every good work." (See Clement to the Corinthians)

He went on to exhort them to be obedient to those who had served in leadership positions among them and to underscore the important role which Christ had assigned for love to play in their lives. The bishop wrote: "Let us therefore, with all haste, put an end to this [state of things]; and let us fall down before the Lord, and beseech Him with tears, that He would mercifully be reconciled to us, and restore us to our former seemly and holy practice of brotherly love...Let him who has love in Christ keep the commandments of Christ. Who can describe the [blessed] bond of the love of God? What man is able to tell the excellence of its beauty, as it ought to be told? The height to which love exalts is unspeakable. Love unites us to God. Love covers a multitude of sins. Love bears all things, is long-suffering in all things. There is nothing base, nothing arrogant in love. Love admits of no schisms: love gives rise to no seditions: love does all things in harmony. By love have all the elect of God been made perfect; without love nothing is well-pleasing to God. In love has the Lord taken us to Himself. On account of the love He bore us, Jesus Christ our Lord gave His blood for us by the will of God; His flesh for our flesh, and His soul for our souls." He went on to conclude his epistle by appealing to everyone to submit to the authority of Jesus Christ and to pray for the speedy resolution of the problem there. (See Clement to the Corinthians) Even so, Clement's epistle to the saints at Corinth is NOT the only extant writing available to us from this generation of Christianity.

Another Church leader of this generation was Ignatius of Antioch. My readers will remember that Antioch was considered by many to be the mother church of Gentile Christianity. Fortunately for us, we have several epistles by this bishop which have survived to our own time. Ignatius wrote epistles to the congregations at Ephesus, Magnesia, Tralles, Rome, Philadelphia, and Smyrna. Moreover, we also have a letter which he wrote to another one of the Church leaders of this period - a bishop by the name of Polycarp.

In his epistle to the Ephesians, Ignatius exhorted those Christians to remain united in doctrine and purpose, listen to their bishop, and beware of false teachers. His letter also makes numerous references to Paul's own letter to the Ephesians and his first epistle to the saints at Corinth (which demonstrates familiarity with them and that they were being circulated within the Church). He went on to write: "None of these things is hid from you, if you perfectly possess that faith and love towards Christ Jesus 1 Timothy 1:14 which are the beginning and the end of life. For the beginning is faith, and the end is love. 1 Timothy 1:5 Now these two, being inseparably connected together, are of God, while all other things which are requisite for a holy life follow after them. No man [truly] making a profession of faith sins; 1 John 3:7 nor does he that possesses love hate any one. The tree is made manifest by its fruit; Matthew 12:33 so those that profess themselves to be Christians shall be recognized by their conduct. For there is not now a demand for mere profession, but that a man be found continuing in the power of faith to the end." In this same letter, Ignatius also displayed a familiarity with Christ's origin story when he wrote: "Now the virginity of Mary was hidden from the prince of this world, as was also her offspring, and the death of the Lord; three mysteries of renown, which were wrought in silence by God. How, then, was He manifested to the world? A star shone forth in heaven above all the other stars, the light of which was inexpressible, while its novelty struck men with astonishment. And all the rest of the stars, with the sun and moon, formed a chorus to this star, and its light was exceedingly great above them all. And there was agitation felt as to whence this new spectacle came, so unlike to everything else [in the heavens]. Hence every kind of magic was destroyed, and every bond of wickedness disappeared; ignorance was removed, and the old kingdom abolished, God Himself being manifested in human form for the renewal of eternal life. And now that took a beginning which had been prepared by God. Henceforth all things were in a state of tumult, because He meditated the abolition of death." (See The Epistle of Ignatius to the Ephesians)

Likewise, in his letter to the saints at Magnesia, Ignatius exhorted them to remain unified and listen to their bishop. He went on to warn them: "Let us not, therefore, be insensible to His kindness. For were He to reward us according to our works, we should cease to be. Therefore, having become His disciples, let us learn to live according to the principles of Christianity. For whosoever is called by any other name besides this, is not of God. Lay aside, therefore, the evil, the old, the sour leaven, and be changed into the new leaven, which is Jesus Christ. Be salted in Him, lest any one among you should be corrupted, since by your savour you shall be convicted. It is absurd to profess Christ Jesus, and to Judaize. For Christianity did not embrace Judaism, but Judaism Christianity, that so every tongue which believes might be gathered together to God." He continued: "These things [I address to you], my beloved, not that I know any of you to be in such a state; [addicted to the error of Judaizing] but, as less than any of you, I desire to guard you beforehand, that you fall not upon the hooks of vain doctrine, but that you attain to full assurance in regard to the birth, and passion, and resurrection which took place in the time of the government of Pontius Pilate, being truly and certainly accomplished by Jesus Christ, who is our hope, 1 Timothy 1:1 from which may no one of you ever be turned aside." Once again, the bishop displays a familiarity with Christ's story which also demonstrates that the Gospel was circulating among believers during this period. (See The Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians)

Once again, in his letter to the Christians at Tralles, he admonishes them to listen to their bishop and deacons. In similar fashion, he again related his familiarity with Christ's story and admonished them to remain focused on that message. He wrote: "Stop your ears, therefore, when any one speaks to you at variance with Jesus Christ, who was descended from David, and was also of Mary; who was truly born, and ate and drank. He was truly persecuted under Pontius Pilate; He was truly crucified, and [truly] died, in the sight of beings in heaven, and on earth, and under the earth. He was also truly raised from the dead, His Father quickening Him, even as after the same manner His Father will so raise up us who believe in Him by Christ Jesus, apart from whom we do not possess the true life." (See The Epistle of Ignatius to the Trallians)

In his letter to the Christians of Rome, Ignatius waxed eloquent about his impending martyrdom on behalf of his faith in Jesus Christ. He wrote: "I write to the Churches, and impress on them all, that I shall willingly die for God, unless you hinder me. I beseech of you not to show an unseasonable good-will towards me. Allow me to become food for the wild beasts, through whose instrumentality it will be granted me to attain to God. I am the wheat of God, and let me be ground by the teeth of the wild beasts, that I may be found the pure bread of Christ. Rather entice the wild beasts, that they may become my tomb, and may leave nothing of my body; so that when I have fallen asleep [in death], I may be no trouble to any one. Then shall I truly be a disciple of Christ, when the world shall not see so much as my body. Entreat Christ for me, that by these instruments I may be found a sacrifice [to God]. I do not, as Peter and Paul, issue commandments unto you. They were apostles; I am but a condemned man: they were free, while I am, even until now, a servant. But when I suffer, I shall be the freed-man of Jesus, and shall rise again emancipated in Him. And now, being a prisoner, I learn not to desire anything worldly or vain." He continued: "Remember in your prayers the Church in Syria, which now has God for its shepherd, instead of me. Jesus Christ alone will oversee it, and your love [will also regard it]. But as for me, I am ashamed to be counted one of them; for indeed I am not worthy, as being the very last of them, and one born out of due time. 1 Corinthians 15:8-9 But I have obtained mercy to be somebody, if I shall attain to God. My spirit salutes you, and the love of the Churches that have received me in the name of Jesus Christ, and not as a mere passer-by. For even those Churches which were not near to me in the way, I mean according to the flesh, have gone before me, city by city, [to meet me.]" (See The Epistle of Ignatius to the Romans)

As in his other epistles, Ignatius admonished the Christians at Philadelphia to respect and obey their bishop. Likewise, he exhorted them to strive for unity and avoid schismatics. The bishop went on to write: "But if any one preach the Jewish law unto you, listen not to him. For it is better to hearken to Christian doctrine from a man who has been circumcised, than to Judaism from one uncircumcised. But if either of such persons do not speak concerning Jesus Christ, they are in my judgment but as monuments and sepulchers of the dead, upon which are written only the names of men. Flee therefore the wicked devices and snares of the prince of this world, lest at any time being conquered by his artifices, grow weak in your love. But be all joined together with an undivided heart. And I thank my God that I have a good conscience in respect to you, and that no one has it in his power to boast, either privately or publicly, that I have burdened any one either in much or in little. And I wish for all among whom I have spoken, that they may not possess that for a testimony against them." He concluded: "The priests indeed are good, but the High Priest is better; to whom the holy of holies has been committed, and who alone has been trusted with the secrets of God. He is the door of the Father, by which enter in Abraham, and Isaac, and Jacob, and the prophets, and the apostles, and the Church. All these have for their object the attaining to the unity of God. But the Gospel possesses something transcendent [above the former dispensation], viz., the appearance of our Lord Jesus Christ, His passion and resurrection. For the beloved prophets announced Him, but the Gospel is the perfection of immortality. All these things are good together, if you believe in love." (See The Epistle of Ignatius to the Philadelphians)

Finally, in his letter to the saints at Smyrna, Ignatius again confirmed his familiarity with Christ's story, and its central role in the life of a Christian. He wrote: "I Glorify God, even Jesus Christ, who has given you such wisdom. For I have observed that you are perfected in an immoveable faith, as if you were nailed to the cross of our Lord Jesus Christ, both in the flesh and in the spirit, and are established in love through the blood of Christ, being fully persuaded with respect to our Lord, that He was truly of the seed of David according to the flesh, Romans 1:3 and the Son of God according to the will and power of God; that He was truly born of a virgin, was baptized by John, in order that all righteousness might be fulfilled Matthew 3:15 by Him; and was truly, under Pontius Pilate and Herod the tetrarch, nailed [to the cross] for us in His flesh. Of this fruit we are by His divinely-blessed passion, that He might set up a standard Isaiah 5:26, Isaiah 49:22 for all ages, through His resurrection, to all His holy and faithful [followers], whether among Jews or Gentiles, in the one body of His Church." Ignatius continued: "Let no man deceive himself. Both the things which are in heaven, and the glorious angels, and rulers, both visible and invisible, if they believe not in the blood of Christ, shall, in consequence, incur condemnation. He that is able to receive it, let him receive it. Matthew 19:12 Let not [high] place puff any one up: for that which is worth all is faith and love, to which nothing is to be preferred. But consider those who are of a different opinion with respect to the grace of Christ which has come unto us, how opposed they are to the will of God. They have no regard for love; no care for the widow, or the orphan, or the oppressed; of the bond, or of the free; of the hungry, or of the thirsty." (See The Epistle of Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans)

As has already been noted, Ignatius also wrote a short letter to Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna. Now, while that epistle demonstrated that these men knew each other and had worked together for the good of the Church, the surviving epistle of Polycarp to the saints at Philippi is even more important. In that letter, Polycarp demonstrated his familiarity with Paul's letters to the Romans, Corinthians, Philippians and Ephesians, the Gospel of Matthew, and the First Epistle of Peter. Moreover, toward the epistle's conclusion, Polycarp provided us with some insight into how these epistles were shared and circulated among the various congregations of that time. He wrote: "Both you and Ignatius wrote to me, that if any one went [from this] into Syria, he should carry your letter with him; which request I will attend to if I find a fitting opportunity, either personally, or through some other acting for me, that your desire may be fulfilled. The Epistles of Ignatius written by him to us, and all the rest [of his Epistles] which we have by us, we have sent to you, as you requested. They are subjoined to this Epistle, and by them you may be greatly profited; for they treat of faith and patience, and all things that tend to edification in our Lord. Any more certain information you may have obtained respecting both Ignatius himself, and those that were with him, have the goodness to make known to us." (See The Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians) It is with sadness that we must report that both Ignatius and Polycarp suffered martyrdom for their faith in Jesus Christ. In other words, the days when Christian leaders would die in their beds of old age was still in the distant future as the first one hundred years of the Church came to a close!

Now, at the very close of that first one hundred years, a young man named Justin was converted to Christianity and would later give his own life in defense of the religion. I refer to him and his writings at the close of this history, because they offer us some insight into what the Church was like at the conclusion of that first one hundred years of the Church. He defended the Church against the charge of Atheism, since Christians refused to recognize any other gods than their own. His writings also provide us with some insight into how Christians practiced their faith during this period. After speaking at some length about the Eucharist, he wrote: "And we afterwards continually remind each other of these things. And the wealthy among us help the needy; and we always keep together; and for all things wherewith we are supplied, we bless the Maker of all through His Son Jesus Christ, and through the Holy Ghost. And on the day called Sunday, all who live in cities or in the country gather together to one place, and the memoirs of the apostles or the writings of the prophets are read, as long as time permits; then, when the reader has ceased, the president verbally instructs, and exhorts to the imitation of these good things. Then we all rise together and pray, and, as we before said, when our prayer is ended, bread and wine and water are brought, and the president in like manner offers prayers and thanksgivings, according to his ability, and the people assent, saying Amen; and there is a distribution to each, and a participation of that over which thanks have been given, and to those who are absent a portion is sent by the deacons. And they who are well to do, and willing, give what each thinks fit; and what is collected is deposited with the president, who succors the orphans and widows and those who, through sickness or any other cause, are in want, and those who are in bonds and the strangers sojourning among us, and in a word takes care of all who are in need. But Sunday is the day on which we all hold our common assembly, because it is the first day on which God, having wrought a change in the darkness and matter, made the world; and Jesus Christ our Saviour on the same day rose from the dead. For He was crucified on the day before that of Saturn (Saturday); and on the day after that of Saturn, which is the day of the Sun, having appeared to His apostles and disciples, He taught them these things, which we have submitted to you also for your consideration." (See The First Apology of Justin Martyr)

In his book The Triumph of Christianity, Dr Bart Ehrman wrote: "It may come as a shock to learn that Christians on trial in the Roman world were maligned and punished for being atheists...Nonetheless, the term "atheist" was used. Only rarely did it refer to someone who denied the existence of any divine being at all. Rather, it was used either to refer to those who thought the gods were radically disinterested and uninvolved with human affairs-that was the view of the Epicurean philosophers-or to those who did not ascribe any true divinity to the traditional gods. No one who participated in the regular religious life of the empire fit that category. The Jews were a partial exception, but even most Jews were completely open to gentiles worshiping their pagan gods in any way they chose. The charge of atheism principally came to be applied, after the Epicureans, to Christians. They insisted not only that theirs was the only god but also that a person needed to worship this god alone. None of the other gods was really a god. Worse still, Christians did not engage in widely recognized and accepted cultic acts, especially sacrifice. Because of their idiosyncratic views and practices, Christians were considered to be without the gods. They were the atheists." (Ehrman, Bart. The Triumph of Christianity, New York, 2018, p. 188) Although there is other evidence available to us that Christians were NEVER overwhelmed by paganism, this point alone demonstrates the absurdity of the notion.

Thus, at the conclusion of the first one hundred years of the Church, we find a group of people which had continued to grow and expand in the face of persecution. We have also demonstrated that these folks were very familiar with the story of Christ's life, death, and resurrection; and that many of them were familiar with the canonical epistles and other writings of First Century Christians. We have also demonstrated that it was the practice of the overwhelming majority of Christians to meet together and worship on the Lord's Day - the first day of the week or Sunday. Finally, we have also demonstrated that Christians shunned and disparaged other gods and religious practices (which got them into big trouble with Roman authorities). These are the conclusions which an open-minded review of the evidence has led us to reach. This evidence has also demonstrated to me that something supernatural was at work in these events - that they could NOT have happened by mere coincidence or chance. That Christianity would one day supplant the religions of Rome, and the other peoples of the Western World is nothing less than a miracle, in my humble opinion! From these very humble beginnings and against entrenched thinking and traditions, the Church continued to grow and triumph over other faiths and ideologies.

THE END

The First One Hundred Years of the Church (Part 11)

Now, as we have already discussed, and as the original generation of Christians began to die off, some of the folks recognized the necessity for committing many of the stories which had been repeated about Jesus over and over again to writing. The opening to "Luke's" Gospel account gives us some insight into this phenomenon. We read: "Inasmuch as many have undertaken to compile a narrative of the things that have been accomplished among us, just as those who from the beginning were eyewitnesses and ministers of the word have delivered them to us, it seemed good to me also, having followed all things closely for some time past, to write an orderly account for you, most excellent Theophilus, that you may have certainty concerning the things you have been taught." (Luke 1:1-4) 

Likewise, the author of the last of the canonical gospels to be written wrote: "Now Jesus did many other signs in the presence of the disciples, which are not written in this book; but these are written so that you may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, and that by believing you may have life in his name." (John 20:30-31) Moreover, at the very end of the account we read: "Peter turned and saw the disciple whom Jesus loved following them, the one who also had leaned back against him during the supper and had said, 'Lord, who is it that is going to betray you?' When Peter saw him, he said to Jesus, 'Lord, what about this man?' Jesus said to him, 'If it is my will that he remain until I come, what is that to you? You follow me!' So the saying spread abroad among the brothers that this disciple was not to die; yet Jesus did not say to him that he was not to die, but, 'If it is my will that he remain until I come, what is that to you?' This is the disciple who is bearing witness about these things, and who has written these things, and we know that his testimony is true. Now there are also many other things that Jesus did. Were every one of them to be written, I suppose that the world itself could not contain the books that would be written." (John 21:20-25) Notice, that the author's purpose was to give enough information to convince his audience that Jesus was the Christ, and that he is giving context and truth to a story that had already been widely circulated among believers of that time.

We should note that there were other writings circulating during this period which did not make it into the canon, but they also provide valuable insights into the history of the Church and what early Christians actually believed and taught. One of the most important of these was the epistle attributed to Barnabas. In this letter, the author reminds his readers that the sacrifices of Torah have been fulfilled in Jesus, and that they are no longer necessary for those who have accepted the sacrifice of Jesus. He went on to remind his audience that God's covenant with Israel had been broken by the Jews, and that Christians should strive to avoid following their example. He went on to stress the fact that the New Covenant was founded on the sufferings of Jesus, and that it had been predicted by the Hebrew prophets many years prior to his appearance on earth. Barnabas continued by pointing out that the rituals surrounding the Jewish Day of Atonement had pointed to Jesus Christ - that he had fulfilled them. In similar fashion, he explained how the red heifer, circumcision, and clean and unclean foods pointed to Christ; and how baptism and the cross were foreshadowed in the Hebrew Bible. He also pointed out that Christians, not Jews, were the true heirs of the covenant.

Finally, Barnabas explained why Christians had abandoned the weekly Sabbath and embraced the Lord's Day instead. He wrote: "Further, also, it is written concerning the Sabbath in the Decalogue which [the Lord] spoke, face to face, to Moses on Mount Sinai, And sanctify the Sabbath of the Lord with clean hands and a pure heart. Exodus 20:8; Deuteronomy 5:12 And He says in another place, If my sons keep the Sabbath, then will I cause my mercy to rest upon them. Jeremiah 17:24-25 The Sabbath is mentioned at the beginning of the creation [thus]: And God made in six days the works of His hands, and made an end on the seventh day, and rested on it, and sanctified it. Attend, my children, to the meaning of this expression, He finished in six days. This implies that the Lord will finish all things in six thousand years, for a day is with Him a thousand years. And He Himself testifies, saying, Behold, today will be as a thousand years. Therefore, my children, in six days, that is, in six thousand years, all things will be finished. And He rested on the seventh day. This means: when His Son, coming [again], shall destroy the time of the wicked man, and judge the ungodly, and change the-sun, and the moon, and the stars, then shall He truly rest on the seventh day. Moreover, He says, You shall sanctify it with pure hands and a pure heart. If, therefore, any one can now sanctify the day which God has sanctified, except he is pure in heart in all things, we are deceived. Behold, therefore: certainly then one properly resting sanctifies it, when we ourselves, having received the promise, wickedness no longer existing, and all things having been made new by the Lord, shall be able to work righteousness. Then we shall be able to sanctify it, having been first sanctified ourselves. Further, He says to them, Your new moons and your Sabbath I cannot endure. Isaiah 1:13 You perceive how He speaks: Your present Sabbaths are not acceptable to Me, but that is which I have made, [namely this,] when, giving rest to all things, I shall make a beginning of the eighth day, that is, a beginning of another world. Wherefore, also, we keep the eighth day with joyfulness, the day also on which Jesus rose again from the dead. And when He had manifested Himself, He ascended into the heavens." (See The Epistle of Barnabas)

In addition to that letter, there were two other writings which belong to this period which were widely circulated among early Christians, and which offer us similar important insights into the beliefs and practices of the First Century Church. They are: The Shepherd and The Didache. The Shepherd of Hermas began with five visions and then proceeded to offer twelve commandments for Christians to focus on in their daily lives. The book concluded with ten similitudes which focused on exhibiting a life filled with spiritual fruit and continuous repentance from sinful practices. (See The Shepherd of Hermas)

The Didache, or The Lord's Teaching Through the Twelve Apostles to the Nations," was kind of an early catechism of the Christian faith. It began with contrasting the way of life with the way of death. The book focused on the Two Great Commandments and elaborated on their importance to how a Christian should live his life on a daily basis. The author went on to warn against false teachers and consuming food that had been offered to idols. He went on to give instructions about baptism, the Lord's Prayer, the Eucharist, prayer, and Church leadership. Like the epistle of Barnabas, the author emphasized the Christian's obligation to weekly worship. He wrote: "But every Lord's day gather yourselves together, and break bread, and give thanksgiving after having confessed your transgressions, that your sacrifice may be pure. But let no one that is at variance with his fellow come together with you, until they be reconciled, that your sacrifice may not be profaned. For this is that which was spoken by the Lord: In every place and time offer to me a pure sacrifice; for I am a great King, says the Lord, and my name is wonderful among the nations." The book concluded with an admonition to be prepared for the Lord's return. He wrote: "Watch for your life's sake. Let not your lamps be quenched, nor your loins unloosed; but be ready, for you know not the hour in which our Lord comes." (See The Didache)

Now, it is generally agreed that the last book of the New Testament canon was composed during this last part of the First Century - the book of Revelation. The book is addressed to the seven churches of Asia, and the opening is indicative of what was to follow. We read: "Grace to you and peace from him who is and who was and who is to come, and from the seven spirits who are before his throne, and from Jesus Christ the faithful witness, the firstborn of the dead, and the ruler of kings on earth. To him who loves us and has freed us from our sins by his blood and made us a kingdom, priests to his God and Father, to him be glory and dominion forever and ever. Amen. Behold, he is coming with the clouds, and every eye will see him, even those who pierced him, and all tribes of the earth will wail on account of him. Even so. Amen." (Revelation 1:4-7) The author then proceeded to identify himself and provide some context for the remarks that would follow. He wrote: "I, John, your brother and partner in the tribulation and the kingdom and the patient endurance that are in Jesus, was on the island called Patmos on account of the word of God and the testimony of Jesus. I was in the Spirit on the Lord's day, and I heard behind me a loud voice like a trumpet saying, “Write what you see in a book and send it to the seven churches, to Ephesus and to Smyrna and to Pergamum and to Thyatira and to Sardis and to Philadelphia and to Laodicea." (Revelation 1:9-11) Notice the nonchalant reference to being in the Spirit on the Lord's Day - as if the practice were so commonplace by this time that it barely warrants a reference!

To be sure, the book of Revelation is a difficult book. It is a book that is full of symbolism, numbers, and apocalyptic imagery. In his Church History, Eusebius noted that some Christians rejected the book for inclusion in the canon of the New Testament. Nevertheless, the book was accepted by enough folks that it obviously eventually made the cut. From my perspective, the controversy which has surrounded this book is unfortunate and unnecessary. As The Bible Project pointed out, the author's intent was "not to confuse but to communicate." Their article on the book went on to note that "Almost all the imagery is drawn from the Old Testament, and John expects his readers to interpret by looking up the texts to which he alludes." Moreover, I think that Bible Project hit the proverbial nail on the head when they described the main theme of the book as being that "Every human kingdom, like Babylon, eventually becomes corrupt and oppressive. We should resist evil kingdoms by loving people and trusting that Jesus will not let evil go unchecked. He will return to remove evil from the world and make all things new." Indeed, this message made a lot of sense when we consider the context of the times - the persecutions of Nero and the Roman destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple. Thus, the book's message came into sharp focus for Christian's who were nearing the end of the first one hundred years of the Church's story: Christians should NOT participate in or rely on the governments instituted by unconverted humans! As the epistle to the Hebrews noted, God's people should regard themselves as "strangers and exiles on the earth." (Hebrews 11:13-16)

The First One Hundred Years of the Church (Part 10)

Now, events began to move quickly, and the decade of the sixties proved to be a momentous one in the history of the Church. Felix was replaced by Portius Festus as procurator, and he immediately convened a tribunal to hear the charges against Paul and his reply. (Acts 24:27 and Acts 25:1-6) "Do you wish to go up to Jerusalem and there be tried on these charges before me?" Festus asked the apostle. Paul replied: "I am standing before Caesar's tribunal, where I ought to be tried. To the Jews I have done no wrong, as you yourself know very well. If then I am a wrongdoer and have committed anything for which I deserve to die, I do not seek to escape death. But if there is nothing to their charges against me, no one can give me up to them. I appeal to Caesar." "To Caesar you have appealed; to Caesar you shall go!" the procurator decided. (Acts 25:8-12)

After also appearing before King Agrippa, Paul and his companions were placed in the custody of a centurion named Julius and set sail for Italy. (Acts25:13-27, 26 and 27:1) However, while sailing across the Mediterranean, they ran into a storm and were shipwrecked on the island of Malta. (Acts 27:2-44 and 28:1) Fortunately, the inhabitants of the island welcomed the survivors and even kindled a fire to warm them. Thankful for the reception that they had received, Paul gathered up an armful of wood and threw it on the fire. Unfortunately, the heat drove a snake out of the sticks, and it sunk its fangs into Paul. Even so, Paul simply shook off the snake back into the flames and didn't suffer any harm! The apostle also healed many of the inhabitants of the island who were ill. Moreover, their leader extended the hospitality which had already been shown to the survivors and resupplied another ship so that their journey could continue. After wintering there, they continued on their way to Rome. (Acts 28:2-16) Paul lived under house arrest in Rome for the next two years, but he continued to preach the Gospel and to write letters to some of the congregations which he had started. (Acts 28:17-30)

By this time, James had been the leader of the Jerusalem Church for many years. And, by extension, was one of the leading voices within the Jewish Christian Church. As a consequence of his visibility within the community of Jewish Christians, he was also well-known to the High Priest and other members of the Council in Jerusalem. Moreover, after Festus died and before the new procurator could arrive, the High Priest Ananus "assembled the Sanhedrim of the judges, and brought before them the brother of Jesus, who was called Christ, whose name was James, and some others (or some of his companions); and when he had formed an accusation against them as breakers of the law, he delivered them to be stoned: but as for those who seemed the most equitable of the citizens, and such as were the most uneasy at the breach of the laws, they disliked what was done; they also sent to the king (Agrippa) desiring him to send to Ananus that he should act so no more, for that what he had already done was not to be justified: nay, some of them went also to meet Albinus, as he was upon his journey from Alexandria [the new procurator], and informed him that it was not lawful for Ananus to assemble a Sanhedrim without his consent." (Antiquities of the Jews, Book 20, Chapter 9, Section 1, by Flavius Josephus) It should be noted that Eusebius recounts a tradition that James was thrown off of the pinnacle of the Temple (I obviously believe that Josephus was closer to the actual event and more reliable). Now, obviously, the death of James was a grievous blow to the whole Church, but it hit Jewish Christians especially hard.

In terms of chronology, the next major event of the decade in the history of the Church occurred in Rome during the reign of the Emperor Nero. As a consequence of the great fire that broke out in the city in the year 64 CE, the Roman historian, Tacitus described the events that followed. He wrote: "Such indeed were the precautions of human wisdom. The next thing was to seek means of propitiating the gods, and recourse was had to the Sibylline books, by the direction of which prayers were offered to Vulcanus, Ceres, and Proserpina. Juno, too, was entreated by the matrons, first, in the Capitol, then on the nearest part of the coast, whence water was procured to sprinkle the fane and image of the goddess. And there were sacred banquets and nightly vigils celebrated by married women. But all human efforts, all the lavish gifts of the emperor, and the propitiations of the gods, did not banish the sinister belief that the conflagration was the result of an order. Consequently, to get rid of the report, Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called Christians by the populace. Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilatus, and a most mischievous superstition, thus checked for the moment, again broke out not only in Judaea, the first source of the evil, but even in Rome, where all things hideous and shameful from every part of the world find their centre and become popular. Accordingly, an arrest was first made of all who pleaded guilty; then, upon their information, an immense multitude was convicted, not so much of the crime of firing the city, as of hatred against mankind. Mockery of every sort was added to their deaths. Covered with the skins of beasts, they were torn by dogs and perished, or were nailed to crosses, or were doomed to the flames and burnt, to serve as a nightly illumination, when daylight had expired. Nero offered his gardens for the spectacle, and was exhibiting a show in the circus, while he mingled with the people in the dress of a charioteer or stood aloft on a car. Hence, even for criminals who deserved extreme and exemplary punishment, there arose a feeling of compassion; for it was not, as it seemed, for the public good, but to glut one man's cruelty, that they were being destroyed." Annals, by Tacitus, Book XV

In his account of the fate of the apostles, Eusebius wrote: "Such was the condition of the Jews. Meanwhile the holy apostles and disciples of our Saviour were dispersed throughout the world. Parthia, according to tradition, was allotted to Thomas as his field of labor, Scythia to Andrew, and Asia to John, who, after he had lived some time there, died at Ephesus. Peter appears to have preached in Pontus, Galatia, Bithynia, Cappadocia, and Asia to the Jews of the dispersion. And at last, having come to Rome, he was crucified head-downwards; for he had requested that he might suffer in this way. What do we need to say concerning Paul, who preached the Gospel of Christ from Jerusalem to Illyricum, and afterwards suffered martyrdom in Rome under Nero? These facts are related by Origen in the third volume of his Commentary on Genesis." Church History, by Eusebius, Book 3, Chapter 1, Sections 1 and 2 Moreover, the martyrdom of Peter and Paul were mentioned by Clement in his letter to the saints at Corinth. He wrote: "Let us take the noble examples furnished in our own generation. Through envy and jealousy the greatest and most righteous pillars [of the church] have been persecuted and put to death. Let us set before our eyes the illustrious apostles. Peter, through unrighteous envy, endured not one or two, but numerous labors; and when he had at length suffered martyrdom, departed to the place of glory due to him. Owing to envy, Paul also obtained the reward of patient endurance, after being seven times thrown into captivity, compelled to flee, and stoned. After preaching both in the east and west, he gained the illustrious reputation due to his faith, having taught righteousness to the whole world, and come to the extreme limit of the west, and suffered martyrdom under the prefects. Thus was he removed from the world, and went into the holy place, having proved himself a striking example of patience." Letter to the Corinthians by Clement At any rate, just as the martyrdom of James had caused a great hurt to the Church, the loss of Peter and Paul was devastating.

Even so, an even more monumental and cataclysmic storm was brewing in Judea. The Jews had long been restive under Roman rule, and the appointment of a new procurator was about to bring those long-simmering tensions to a head. Josephus described those events in the following manner: "Now Gessius Florus, who was sent as successor to Albinus by Nero, filled Judea with abundance of miseries...This Florus was so wicked, and so violent in the use of his authority, that the Jews took Albinus to have been (comparatively) their benefactor; so excessive were the mischiefs that he brought upon them. For Albinus concealed his wickedness, and was careful that it might not be discovered to all men; but Gessius Florus, as though he had been sent on purpose to shew his crimes to everybody, made a pompous ostentation of them to our nation, as never omitting any sort of violence, nor any unjust sort of punishment; for he was not to be moved by pity, and never was satisfied with any degree of gain that came in his way; nor had he any more regard to great that to small acquisitions, but became a partner with the robbers themselves; for a great many fell then into that practice without fear, as having him for their security, and depending on him, that he would save them harmless in their particular robberies; so that there were no bounds set to the nation's miseries; but the unhappy Jews, when they were not able to bear the devastations which the robbers made among them, were all under a necessity of leaving their own habitations, and of flying away, as hoping to dwell more easily anywhere else in the world among foreigners (than in their own country.) And what need I say any more upon this head? since it was this Florus who necessitated us to take up arms against the Romans, while we thought it better to be destroyed at once, than by little and little. Now this war began in the second year of the government of Florus, and the twelfth year of the reign of Nero. But then what actions we were forced to do, or what miseries we were enabled to suffer, may be accurately known by such as will peruse those books which I have written about the Jewish War." Antiquities of the Jews, by Flavius Josephus, Book 20, Chapter 11, Section 1

In fact, Judea was rapidly descending into a state of armed rebellion against its Roman overlords. Eusebius wrote: "But the people of the church in Jerusalem had been commanded by a revelation, vouchsafed to approved men there before the war, to leave the city and to dwell in a certain town of Perea called Pella. And when those that believed in Christ had come there from Jerusalem, then, as if the royal city of the Jews and the whole land of Judea were entirely destitute of holy men, the judgment of God at length overtook those who had committed such outrages against Christ and his apostles, and totally destroyed that generation of impious men." Church History, Book 3, Chapter 5, Section 3 Josephus went on to recount the fact that Florus further inflamed Jewish passions by withdrawing a large sum of money from the Temple treasury and ordering his soldiers to plunder and murder around the Upper Market Place. The Wars of the Jews by Flavius Josephus, Book 2, Chapter 14, Sections 6-9 Even so, all of the misery and disruption up to that point were nothing compared with what was to follow!

Initially, Vespasian had led the Roman Army's response to the Jewish rebellion, but he had left for Rome to be crowned as the new emperor before completing the suppression of the rebellion. Thus, he had appointed his son, Titus, to complete that task. In the course of time, the Roman forces surrounded Jerusalem and laid siege to the city. Josephus wrote: "Now of those that perished by famine in the city, the number was prodigious, and the miseries they underwent were unspeakable; for if so much as the shadow of any kind of food did anywhere appear, a war was commenced presently; and the dearest friends fell a fighting one with another about it, snatching from each other the most miserable supports of life." The Wars of the Jews, Book 6, Chapter 3, Section 3 Moreover, when the wall surrounding Jerusalem was finally breached, Josephus recorded what would become a defining event for both the Jewish and the Christian faiths. He wrote: "So, Titus retired into the tower of Antonia, and resolved to storm the Temple the next day, early in the morning, with his whole army, and to encamp round about the holy house; but, as for that house, God had for certain long ago doomed it to the fire; and now that fatal day was come, according to the revolution of the ages: it was the tenth day of the month Lous, (Ab), upon which it was formerly burnt by the king of Babylon; although these flames took their rise from the Jews themselves, and were occasioned by them; for upon Titus's retiring, the seditious lay still for a little while, and then attacked the Romans again, when those that guarded the holy house fought with those that quenched the fire that was burning in the inner (court of the) Temple; but these Romans put the Jews to flight, and proceeded as far as the holy house itself. At which time one of the soldiers, without staying for any orders, and without any concern or dread upon him at so great an undertaking, and being hurried on by a certain divine fury, snatched somewhat out of the materials that were on fire, and being lifted up by another soldier, he set fire to a golden window, through which there was a passage to the rooms that were round about the holy house, on the north side of it. As the flames went upward, the Jews made a great clamor, such as so mighty an affliction required, and ran together to prevent it; and now they spared not their lives any longer, nor suffered anything to restrain their force, since that holy house was perishing, for whose sake it was that they kept such a guard about it" The Wars of the Jews, Book 6, Chapter 4, Section 5

The year was 70 CE, and Jerusalem and the Temple had been destroyed by the Romas! In just forty short years since Christ's death and resurrection, his prophecy about the destruction of the Temple had come to pass (see Matthew 24). Although the war would continue for a few more years, both Judaism and Christianity had been transformed by what had happened in Jerusalem. The Jerusalem Church was gone - its members scattered and in hiding. The Jewish nation lay prostrate before the Roman Empire! Even so, it was the destruction of the Temple itself which would prove to be the defining event for both faiths! Without a central sanctuary, it was no longer possible to fulfill the sacrificial and ritualistic demands of Torah! In short, Jews and Christians were no longer able to celebrate the pilgrimage festivals in the manner prescribed by Torah (see Deuteronomy 16:1-16). Sure, the ever-resilient Jews would regroup and redesign their religion around local synagogues, but Jewish Christianity had been delt a fatal blow. The surviving Jews did not welcome them, and Gentile Christians began to regard them as a relic of a past which no longer existed or made any sense. Indeed, within the Roman Empire, it was now hardly a point of pride to be associated in any way with the Jewish people or their religion. Moreover, there were some who would regard what had happened to the Jews as Divine punishment for what they had done to Jesus of Nazareth. It is unfortunate, but we can trace the beginnings of Christian anti-Semitism to these very events! Even so, our story is NOT finished - we have another sixty years to account for before this series will be complete. Stay tuned!

The First One Hundred Years of the Church (Part 9)

Now, while Paul was carrying the gospel to the Gentiles, others were focused on the Jewish diaspora. Moreover, like Paul, they sometimes employed literate believers to compose letters in the then universal language of Greek to reach those scattered believers.

The anonymous epistle to the Hebrews was one of them. The letter focused on interpreting the Hebrew Bible through the Christ event and comparing the Old Covenant to the New Covenant. It opened with a declaration of Christ's role as God's representative and his superiority to the angelic realm (Hebrews 1). The author then proceeded to describe precisely how Christ brought salvation to humankind, his superiority to Moses, and how he represented the ultimate Sabbath for believers (Hebrews 2-4:13). The epistle also described Christ's role as the High Priest of the New Covenant (Hebrews 4:14-8:13). Next, the author described how Christ fulfilled the sacrificial/ritualistic system of Torah (Hebrews 9-10). Finally, the letter concluded with an explanation of the central role which faith had played in the old system and would continue to play in the new one (Hebrews 11-12).

In similar fashion, James addressed his epistle "To the twelve tribes in the Dispersion." (James 1:1) He focused on Jewish Christians demonstrating their faith in Christ's sacrifice by admonishing them to be doers of God's word, not just hearers (James 1-2). Even so, James reiterated Christ's assertion that the central responsibility of his disciples was to fulfill the Law of Love (James 2:8-13). James went on to encourage Jewish Christians to tame their speech (James 3:1-12). He also reminded his audience about the dangers inherent to giving into the passions which rage within all humans (James 4:1-12). He went on to conclude his remarks with an admonishment to remain faithful to Christ and each other (James 5).

Likewise, Peter addressed his first epistle "To those who are elect exiles of the Dispersion in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia." (I Peter 1:1) Peter opened by reminding his Jewish audience that they had been sprinkled with the blood of Jesus Christ (I Peter 1:2). He also went on to remind them that their hope was centered on the fact that God had resurrected Jesus Christ from the grave (I Peter 1:3-9). Like James, Peter reminded his audience that God had called them to live holy lives (I Peter 1:13-25 and 2:1-12). Like James, he also reiterated Christ's teaching about brotherly love and forgiveness (I Peter 3:8-12) He also admonished Jewish believers to follow Christ's example of patience and humility in the face of suffering and persecution (I Peter 3:13-22 and 4:1-19). Finally, Peter closed with an admonishment for the leadership among them to follow the example of the Good Shepherd of service to others (I Peter 5:1-11).

For Jewish Christians, the focus was on Christ's roll in fulfilling the Hebrew Scriptures. As we have already observed, these folks continued to participate in synagogues. Likewise, they persisted in observing the weekly Sabbath, Holy Days, and in observing the laws surrounding clean and unclean. Nevertheless, like their Gentile brethren, their focus was on Jesus Christ's sacrifice for them, and the fact that God had resurrected him from death. In short, they were Christians who continued to live their lives as cultural Jews.

We must also remember that MOST of them had accepted the Council of Jerusalem's decision regarding a Gentile believer's obligation to Torah (that they were NOT required to observe the tenets of God's covenant with Israel). Even so, there continued to be a small but vocal group of Jewish believers who insisted that everyone (including Gentile converts) was obligated to obey the commandments of Torah. Moreover, many non-believing Jews were, by this time, openly hostile to Christian teachings.

As a Jew and an apostle of Jesus Christ, Paul had experienced the full range of Jewish beliefs and practices. He had also been warned about what he would face in Jerusalem. Hence, he must have been aware that an appearance at the Temple would be dangerous. Indeed, as soon as some of the Asian Jews spotted Paul there, they began stirring up the crowd against him. They claimed that Paul was anti-Jewish, and that he had preached against Torah and the Temple. They also accused him of defiling the Temple by bringing Gentiles into it. (Acts 21:27-29) As a consequence, a large group of these Jews seized Paul and dragged him outside of the Temple. Although the mob clearly intended to kill Paul, the commander of a Roman regiment of soldiers intervened and took him into protective custody. (Acts 21:30-36)

When Paul's safety had finally been secured, he asked the commander for permission to address the mob. The commander gave his assent, and Paul was allowed to speak. He addressed them in Hebrew and briefly recounted his own background in the Jewish religion and in persecuting Christians. (Acts 22:1-21) The mob, however, began screaming at him when he told them that God had sent him to preach to the Gentiles. Thus, the commander intervened again and ordered his soldiers to take Paul inside their headquarters and question him about the riot that he had provoked. Nevertheless, before the soldiers began their interrogation, Paul asked them if it was legal to whip a Roman citizen without a trial. Then a centurion reported what the prisoner had said to the commander, and the interrogation of Paul was immediately suspended. (Acts 22:22-29)

The following day, the commander ordered the Jewish Council to assemble and presented Paul to them for their evaluation of him (Acts 22:20). Paul stood before the Council and declared: "Brothers, I have lived my life before God in all good conscience up to this day." At that, the High Priest ordered those next to Paul to slap his face. "God is going to strike you, you whitewashed wall! Are you sitting to judge me according to the law, and yet contrary to the law you order me to be struck?" Paul responded. This only served to further inflame the High Priest and his supporters, so Paul apologized for being unintentionally impertinent. (Acts 23:1-5)

Now, Paul realized that the Council was composed of both Pharisees and Sadducees, and he declared to the assembly that he was associated with the beliefs of the Pharisees. "It is with respect to the hope and the resurrection of the dead that I am on trial," he declared. Hearing that, the Pharisees on the Council all said that they couldn't find any fault with what Paul was saying. As a consequence, the Council became embroiled in a heated debate between the two parties, and the tribune again had to intervene to save Paul from the uproar that his remarks had evoked. (Acts 23:6-10)

That evening, the Lord appeared to Paul and said: "Take courage, for as you have testified to the facts about me in Jerusalem, so you must testify also in Rome." (Acts 23:11) Nevertheless, the next day Paul learned of a plot by over forty individuals to murder him, and that they had obtained the cooperation of some of the leading members of the Council in their plans. However, when the tribune heard about the plot, he decided to remove Paul from the Council's reach and thwart the plans of the conspirators. (Acts 23:12-22)

Thus, the commander wrote a letter to Felix, who was then the governor of the province, explaining Paul's circumstances and asking him to intervene in the matter. Toward that end, he ordered a large detachment of Roman soldiers to take Paul to Caesarea and present him to the governor. As a consequence, Felix agreed to hear Paul's case after his accusers had been given the opportunity to also appear at the hearing. (Acts 23:23-35)

Five days later, the High Priest arrived in Caesarea with a small group of elders who were prepared to make their case against Paul. Both sides presented their case to Felix, and the apostle defended both his actions and his beliefs against his accusers. The governor, however, did not want to offend the Jewish religious leadership; so, he decided to keep Paul in prison. Hence, for the next two years Paul remained in a kind of limbo. (Acts 24)

Now, although no one knows the exact date, it was about this time that accounts of Christ's life, death, and resurrection began to be committed to writing. Prior to this, they had been told and retold many times throughout the years since Christ's death and resurrection. Once again, although there is much uncertainty surrounding the process of writing the Synoptic Gospels, a scholarly consensus has rallied around what is known as the Four-Source Hypothesis. Indeed, in Bart Ehrman's The Bible: A Historical and Literary Introduction (Oxford University Press, 2018), we are informed that this is "the view held by the vast majority of critical scholars today."

Ehrman wrote: "The foundation for this hypothesis is that among the three Synoptic Gospels, Mark was the first to be written* and was copied, in part, by both Matthew and Luke for many of their stories. This view is sometimes called Markan Priority, that is, Mark was prior to and used by the other two. There are numerous reasons for holding this view." Ehrman went on to list three of the main justifications for holding to this view: 1) the patterns of agreement between them, 2) the sequence in which the stories appear, and 3) the fact that both Matthew and Luke make independent corrections to problematic passages found in Mark. Hence, Mark becomes the principal source for both of the other Gospels. Likewise, there must have been some other source for stories which do NOT appear in Mark but do appear in both Luke and Matthew. Finally, there is some material that is unique to Matthew, and some that is unique to Luke. I trust my readers with the math - that makes FOUR sources in total for the material found in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke. We should also note that there is a widespread consensus that the Gospel of John was composed later than the Synoptic Gospels and was composed independently of those accounts.

To briefly summarize, during this period, we begin to see epistles and written accounts of Christ's story circulating among the various congregations of the Christian Church. To be clear, there was still nothing like the New Testament Canon at the time. Hence, roughly thirty years after Christ's death and resurrection we begin to see some of these writings being shared among SOME of the congregations of the Church! Thus, although the developments which we have heretofore discussed are a very important part of the story of the Church, we must keep in mind that we are only about one-third of our way through that first one-hundred years! 

* This is consistent with Church History, Book 2, Chapter 15, by Eusebius.